Glaciological climate change research addresses polar and alpine snow and glacier ice cover over both shorter and longer time scales. Other topics include for instance responses of tundra flora and fauna, permafrost and ecosystem carbon budgets to climate change, changes in northern environment due to oil and mineral extraction, adaptation of nature and arctic communities on changes, and effects of resource use on biodiversity. In general, changes in arctic environment and society, the interactions within and among social-ecological systems, are studied within the framework of the subject matter. Direct involvement of local and indigenous peoples and the valuing of ’traditional’ or practitioners’ knowledge are critical within certain projects.